By Chase Louden

“The elusiveness of ‘Home’ has characterized Black existence in the United States”
—Jacqueline Patterson, “Displaced on Repeat: Black Americans and Climate Forced Migration,” July 12, 2023

Climate Migration within the United States

“That storm took the stairs!” Patrina Myers exclaimed, realizing Hurricane Nicole had swept away the staircase of a beachside pavilion near her coastal Georgia home in November of 2022 (Jenkins 2023). Myers is a member of the Gullah/Geechee, a culture descended from former slaves which has lived in low-lying areas of the American Southeast for centuries (Ibid). Myers’ experience provides only a glimpse into the complexity of climate displacement for Black people in the United States. In the 21^st century, it is predicted that climate change will cause the migration of millions of people, particularly the poor and vulnerable. Contemporary migration, often fueled by American imperialism and the remnants of colonial power structures, has been largely motivated by poverty, political turmoil, and gang violence. Climate change has worsened these issues, further leading to more migrations, while crops fail at higher rates due to changing conditions (Speck 2022). According to Capital B, a news network focusing on Black communities, stressors such as environmental racism, cost of living, and other forms of discrimination are forcing Black Americans to move from more central, northern areas of the nation to the South. Black migrants are not necessarily moving away from areas prone to climate risk, but are moving towards them.

Much of US media coverage on migration is dedicated to international migration across national borders from the Global South to the Global North. However, another type of migration already happening is largely left out of the media: internal climate migration within the US. Thousands of Americans have fled their homes due to climate change. Many areas that are labeled as having a high level of climate risk are located in the Southeast United States, which is disproportionately Black. Hurricanes, projected to worsen due to climate change, have devastated parts of the South. New Orleans never truly recovered from the damage from Katrina, and many low-lying areas in the deep South, such as the Carolinas, Florida, and Louisiana, will have to be abandoned due to flooding. This process has already begun in the coastal region, where low-income, Black, and Indigenous communities face environmental change on top of issues such as lack of healthcare and poverty (Lustgarten and Kohut, 2020). Mobility often is based on wealth: although some may move, many others will be left behind. The Gullah/Geechee people in South Carolina, descendants of former slaves, live in low-lying areas along the coast that their ancestors have populated for centuries. With agriculture and fishing being the main means of sustenance for the community, the Gullah/Geechee people have found it more difficult to survive, existing on the frontlines of climate strife and resilience. Myers also states the displacement of her people are an effect of the spread of luxury homes, vacation resorts, and golf courses on their land: “We are more affected by this other ‘climate’ than the weather” (Jenkins 2023).

In 2021, a report by the Environmental Protection Agency found that the impacts of climate catastrophe such as flooding and extreme heat disproportionately affect marginalized groups such as Black communities (EPA, 2021). Their model also showed that the future worsening impacts of climate will continue to affect these communities, especially with the climate seeing 2 and 4°C of global warming respectively (Ibid).

Historical Origins of Black Migration in the South

Jacob Lawrence, The Railroad Stations Were at Times So Over-Packed with People Leaving that Special Guards Had to Be Called in to Keep Order from the Migration Series, 1940–41, Tempera on gesso on composition board, 12 × 18 in.

In the wake of the Civil War, the US had much to rebuild. The settler-colonial state had just fought the costliest war in its history, and much of its infrastructure had been destroyed, especially in the South, and this period of rebuilding lasted from around 1865 to 1877. Many of the Confederate leaders remained unpunished for succession. Any plans to support formerly enslaved people, their families, or their communities were scrapped in favor of keeping the wealthy Southern elite in power. This Southern elite remained largely unchanged even after the Civil War.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the largest migrations in modern history as six million Black Americans moved from the Southern United States to the Midwest and Northern cities. Various factors were pushing them out of the South and pulling them northwards, including racialized violence, droughts, and a growing industrial economy. The Great Migration is one of the hallmark stories in Black history, and many Black families have been living outside of the South for generations now as they fled worsening conditions. However, for many Black Americans living in the northern parts of the country, factors such as redlining, environmental racism, and economic isolation have proven to be too much. Many Black Americans find themselves moving back down south in a new wave of migration. Between 1965 and 1970 around a total of 300,00 Black Americans left the South, while just five years later from 1975 to 1980, nearly 110,00 Black Americans migrated to the Southern states (Pendergrass, 2017). The Black population of metropolitan Atlanta doubled between 1990, and 2020, a population which stands at nearly 2 million people (O’Neal n.d.). A study done by the Brookings Institute shows that six of the ten most popular states for Black interstate movement were in the South (Georgia, Texas, North Carolina, Maryland, Florida, and Virginia) (Frey, 2022). The same study showed that for white movement six of the top 10 states were outside of the South (California, Arizona, Colorado, New York, Pennsylvania, and Washington) (Frey, 2022). Many Black Americans are drawn to the South due to its low cost of living, and resilient Black culture, and for economic opportunities.

Within the South, the economy itself has also seen a drastic change from the more rural plantation-based agricultural economy which millions of Black Americans left nearly a century ago. Parts of the South have large cosmopolitan hubs and tourist industries and are some of the most populous nations in the country. Cities like Atlanta are dubbed “Black Meccas” due to their thriving Black business ecosystem, although it is often much more complicated than it may seem. Cities like Atlanta have a rich history, and an established Black middle class. However, the Black community in Atlanta also suffers from widening wealth inequality (both within itself and compared to their white counterparts), food apartheid, and some of the highest rates of maternal mortality in the country (Wiltz 2022). 

Despite many Southern cities suffering from similar problems as Atlanta, Black Americans are drawn back to the South and other areas because of the growing economies and sizable Black population. Concerns are put on the back burner regarding climate change, as many Black Americans feel like there are more important issues they must deal with (DeWese,Toth, and Osborne 2020). Despite this, Black voters are more concerned with climate change and are on the front lines of the crisis caused by the changing environmental conditions.

Contemporary Displacement

People stranded by Hurricane Katrina waiting to be airlifted, September 4, 2005, New Orleans, Louisiana. Image Credit: Mario Tama/Getty Images.

Even places such as New York City are not safe from climate risk. A seawall is being constructed in lower Manhattan (demolishing a park in the process) to protect the heart of American capital (Newburger, 2023). The construction of the Manhattan seawall will itself require the destruction and rebuilding of the East River Park. In poorer communities in the other boroughs, managed retreats and future discussions have been filled with tension (Rush, 2015).  In these discussions, doubts have been voiced as to whether these communities will exist in a few decades (Rice, 2016). The idea of managed retreat—the coordinated movement of populations away from risk—has become more and more popular. Managed retreat in the context of climate change looks like local governments conducting voluntary buyouts of homes in communities and providing support in the moving process. In the Far Rockaways, majority-white neighborhoods saw more support in the process of rebuilding than neighborhoods with people of color (Calvan, 2022). City or local governments orchestrate many of these programs focused on managed retreats. Some have questioned the process and want it to be more community-driven than done directly by the government. Moving from one’s home is quite a significant decision. Renters are often left out of the equation entirely. A large reservoir of policies and tactics must be available throughout the managed retreat process (Managed Retreat Toolkit).

One of the potential contributors to some of the tensions around climate displacement is the nature of the American economy. Since the decline of the civil rights and black power movements from the 1980s onwards, the US economy, including its northern cities, saw many shifts away from the industrial economy defining much of the earlier half of the 20^th century. This shift has meant that the US has moved from a national economy built on manufacturing and industry to a “FIRE” economy (Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate) built on rent-seeking practices rather than material production. This shift has increased displacement and movement, as homes and long-term residences become more expensive due to profit extraction as the prices of land continue to rise. Insurance companies are also growing more concerned with the long-term ‘livability’ of an area, meaning locations vulnerable to worsening climate-based disasters, such as fires or flooding, will see insurance companies unwilling to insure them, or charging an expensive, premium rate to be insured.

Fight or Flight?

Some organizations have taken it upon themselves to conduct migration in their own way. In 2021, Cooperation Jackson bought land in Vermont to support climate migration from the South. The project, in collaboration with an affiliated organization called Cooperation Vermont, was initiated to develop new forms of survival and deepen connections with the solidarity economy. Climate change is at the forefront of these communities’ issues, and there are no easy solutions—the long-term success of such projects and programs may be measured not through economic statistics but with lives saved.

Over the last few centuries, movement and displacement have been defining factors in the Black experience in America, from the forced migration through the middle passage to the New World, through the flight from the South in the decades following the Civil War. This trend continues today, albeit differently with some similar themes. The sanctity of Black life has constantly been disrespected throughout the history of America. Black bodies have been abused, forgotten, maltreated, and exploited. The civil rights movement and the resulting modest success of some Black Americans has not ended the ongoing stratification of different racial groups in the country or the discrimination they face. During the period of the Great Migration, many Black Americans worked in dangerous, unsanitary factories in Northern cities for low pay.

Many Black communities are still suffering from the fallout of industrialization as they face contaminated soil and water in the areas in their neighborhoods. Many of these issues, as well as rising prices in homes and the cost of living, are driving migration. Even more so, many communities living in areas prone to climate risk, especially flooding, are fighting for their futures. While actions have been taken specifically to prevent flooding and protect communities in vulnerable coastal areas including New York City, it may not be enough to some.

An Unstable Future, A Well-known Past

Frank Bellew, Visit of the Ku-Klux, 1872, wood engraving, 40 x 27 cm.

Throughout American history, Black people have suffered from racialized violence, and this legacy continues with the lack of protection from environmental pollution and climate catastrophe. In the past (and present), extrajudicial actors such as lynch mobs, race rioters, and the Ku Klux Klan terrorized Black communities. Now, it comes from the police, who often act in ways as reactionary as the mobs before them, now under the veneer of law and order.

However, extrajudicial right-wing groups may make a return to the forefront in the coming decades of displacement in the US. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, much of the infrastructure in New Orleans was destroyed. Beyond physical infrastructure such as pipes and electrical lines, this included social infrastructure such as emergency services. In the initial chaos after the hurricane, there were trucks full of armed white men traveling around looking to kill Black men to start a race war (Thompson 2008). This strategy was prevented with an armed coalition of locals and mutual aid organizers who had traveled in and confronted the fascist vigilantes. Who is to say that increased disasters and unrest from climate change will lead to a rise in right-wing vigilante groups functioning essentially as lynch mobs? Increasing climate instability will prove to produce new patterns of displacement for marginalized groups in the US and Western nations. Black Americans may have unique migration patterns due to prior movements in American history, with simultaneous forms of migration occurring. The current and future of climate migration will be unlike any previous era, and new frameworks will be required to understand this era of the black experience and displacement.

Shared Land in Vermont. Image Credit: Cooperation Jackson.

Postscript: The author of this text, Chase Louden, has created a companion StoryMap featuring maps annotated with additional texts and details. View the companion piece at https://arcg.is/1CC40P.

Chandler Chase Louden earned an MS in Design and Urban Ecologies from the Parsons School of Design, New York, and a BA in Cultural Anthropology at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Chandler has developed an interest in community planning with a focus on assisting in the creation of new forms of infrastructure, which includes working to make New York City more food-secure through researching food sovereignty, mutual aid and co-working with community gardens. He also has an interest in building a sustainable economy based on regionally available materials and circularity. Chandler has experience in a wide variety of fields related to public engagement, design and history. In 2022, he interned at the NYC Department of City of Planning, worked as a Garden Educator at the New York Botanical Garden, and he was a 2022-23 Fellow of the Robert L. Heilbroner Center for Capitalism Studies at The New School for Social Research. His research uses the lens of regional planning, urban metabolism, and participatory design. His current research project is focused on the relationship between climate mitigation infrastructure and capitalism. He is currently the Food Access Program Director at Southside United.

Bibliography

Calvan, Bobby. “Superstorm Sandy Legacy: Recovery Far from Equal on Ny Shore.” AP News, October 26, 2022. https://apnews.com/article/superstorm-sandy-disparities-042c69728c10e92837360b8b31704eac.

DeWese, Jared, Jackie Toth, and TJ Osbourne. “Black Americans Care About Climate Change (But It’s Complicated).” Third Way, July 9, 2020. https://www.thirdway.org/memo/black-americans-care-about-climate-change-but-its-complicated.

Frey, William H. “A ‘new Great Migration’ Is Bringing Black Americans Back to the South.” Brookings, September 12, 2022. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/a-new-great-migration-is-bringing-black-americans-back-to-the-south/.

Jenkins, Glenda Simmons. “The Gullah/Geechee People Hold Their Ground.” National Wildlife Federation, July 4, 2023. https://www.nwf.org/Magazines/National-Wildlife/2023/Summer/Conservation/Gullah-Geechee-Climate-Change-Development.

Lustgarten, Abrahm, and Meridith Kohut. “Climate Change Will Force a New American Migration.” ProPublica, September 15, 2020. https://www.propublica.org/article/climate-change-will-force-a-new-american-migration.

Managed Retreat Toolkit, accessed April 1, 2024.

Newburger, Emma.“New York Will Demolish and Elevate a Waterfront Park to Fight Floods, Angering Some Neighbors.” CNBC, March 25, 2023. https://www.cnbc.com/2023/03/25/new-york-will-demolish-elevate-waterfront-park-to-fight-floods.html.

O’Neal, Matthew. “Great Migration.” New Georgia Encyclopedia. Accessed June 10, 2024. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/great-migration/.

Pendergrass, Sabrina. “No Longer ‘Bound for the Promised Land’: African Americans’ Religious Experiences in the Reversal of the Great Migration – Race and Social Problems.” SpringerLink, January 3, 2017. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-016-9191-8.

Rice, Andrew. “When Will New York City Sink?” Intelligencer, September 7, 2016. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2016/09/new-york-future-flooding-climate-change.html.

Rush, Elizabeth. “Some New Yorkers Aren’t Rebuilding after Hurricane Sandy. They’re Leaving.” The New Republic, May 11, 2021. https://newrepublic.com/article/123182/managing-retreat-along-new-york-citys-coasts.

“Social Vulnerability Report.” EPA, 2021. https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-report-shows-disproportionate-impacts-climate-change-socially-vulnerable.

Speck, Mary. “How Climate Change Catalyzes More Migration in Central America.” United States Institute of Peace, September 21, 2022. https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/09/how-climate-change-catalyzes-more-migration-central-america.

Thompson, A.C.. “Post-Katrina, White Vigilantes Shot African-Americans With Impunity.” ProPublica, December 19, 2008. https://www.propublica.org/article/post-katrina-white-vigilantes-shot-african-americans-with-impunity.

Wiltz, Teresa. “Atlanta Is the ‘Black Mecca.’ but It’s Become Unrecognizable.” Politico, September 16, 2022. https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/09/16/atlanta-black-mecca-inequality-00055390.